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Single photon detection with SiPMs irradiated up to 1014?cm?2 1-MeV-equivalent neutron fluence
摘要： Silicon photomultipliers (SiPM) are solid state light detectors with sensitivity to single photons. Their use in high energy physics experiments, and in particular in ring imaging Cherenkov (RICH) detectors, is hindered by their poor tolerance to radiation. At room temperature the large increase in dark count rate makes single photon detection practically impossible already at 1011 cm?2 1-MeV-equivalent neutron fluence. The neutron fluences foreseen by many subdetectors to be operated at the high luminosity LHC range up to 1014 cm?2 1-MeV-equivalent. In this paper we present the effects of such high neutron fluences on Hamamatsu and SensL SiPMs of different cell size. The advantage of annealing at high temperature (up to 175?C) is discussed. We demonstrate that, after annealing, operation at the single photon level with a SiPM irradiated up to 1014 cm?2 1-MeV-equivalent neutron fluence is possible at cryogenic temperature (77 K) with a dark count rate below 1 kHz.
关键词： Cryogenic temperature,Radiation damage,Single photon detection,SiPM,Neutron irradiation,Annealing
更新于2025-09-23 15:22:29
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A wide dynamic range and high resolution all-fiber-optic turbidity measurement system based on single photon detection technique
摘要： A high-resolution fiber-optic detection system has been developed to measure the wide dynamic range of turbidity. To obtain high-resolution measurement results, a high sensitive single photon detection technique (SPDT) has been used in the system. Based on fiber characteristics, a compact probe structure for fiber-optic integrated transceiver (FITP) is designed to transmitting and collection light signal, which has the capability of detecting turbidity in the narrow workspace. By combining the Beer-Lambert (B-L) law transmission law with single photon counting theory, a novel turbidity measurement theoretical model has been proposed, which shows a good exponential relationship over the whole measurement range from 0.01 to 1000 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units). However, when detecting 0.01–0.1 NTU low turbidity, the experimental results turn into an approximate linear relationship, which good agrees with the proposed theoretical model. Last, some issues about the optimization of light intensity and requiring attention on constructing a practical distributed multi-point water turbidity remote monitoring system in the outdoors are also discussed. It was found that the system can achieve a measurement dynamic range as wide as 50 dB with a resolution better than 0.01 NTU in the range of 0.01–1000 NTU, which is suitable for some specific turbidity measurement in remote and narrow workspace.
关键词： Turbidity measurement,Single photon detection technique,Fiber-optic detection,Wide dynamic range
更新于2025-09-23 15:19:57
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[IEEE 2019 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Europe & European Quantum Electronics Conference (CLEO/Europe-EQEC) - Munich, Germany (2019.6.23-2019.6.27)] 2019 Conference on Lasers and Electro-Optics Europe & European Quantum Electronics Conference (CLEO/Europe-EQEC) - Mid-Infrared Photon Counting by Intra-Cavity Up-Conversion for LIDAR
摘要： In range resolved differential absorption LIDAR for gas concentration measurement, an attractive solution would be mid-infrared (MIR) micro-pulse LIDAR with photon counting detection. Single-photon detection in MIR is, however, difficult because of the low photon energy. Both superconducting nanowire detectors and low bandgap APDs need cryogenic cooling and are still limited to wavelengths shorter than approximately 2.5 μm. On the other hand, silicon-based single photon avalanche diodes (Si-SPAD) for the visible and near infrared (NIR) wavelength range operate at room temperature with desirable properties such as good timing resolution, low dark count rate and short dead-time. Nonlinear up-conversion through sum frequency generation (SFG) can be used to transfer single-photons from MIR to wavelengths detectable by a Si-SPAD. The appropriate SFG up-conversion is obtained by mixing with visible or NIR photons in a nonlinear crystal, either in a single pass configuration [1], or inside a laser cavity [2]. In the latter case, the high intra-cavity power enables efficient conversion. Of particular interest is to exploit the quasi-phase matching (QPM) scheme. The crystals can then be engineered for colinear interaction at the required wavelengths and bandwidth. A typical 10 mm long QPM crystal has a MIR bandwidth of about 10 nm only, which with proper filtering gives a low background noise. In this work, a periodically poled Rb-doped KTiOPO4 (PPRKTP) crystal was used to convert pulses at 2.4 μm to 737 nm by intra-cavity mixing with 1,064 nm from a Nd:YVO4 laser. A sketch of the cavity and the detection scheme can be seen in Fig. 1 (a). The cavity consists of three mirrors and the Nd:YVO4 laser crystal which also acts as the input coupler. The plane mirrors have high transmission for the MIR and the generated wavelength. The Fresnel reflections at the surfaces of the uncoated PPRKTP crystal were calculated to be 8.6%, which corresponds to a 30% loss per round-trip. The 1.064 nm beam had a 1/e2 radius of 150 μm and a power of about 10 W inside the crystal. The MIR pulses had a pulse energy in the order of 1 nJ, a duration of around 60 fs and a repetition rate of 1 kHz. They were focused down into the PPRKTP crystal and the light leaving the cavity was filtered to remove the other wavelengths and a Si-SPAD was used to detect the 737 nm pulses. Even though the 737 nm pulses were attenuated by at least 50 dB, the Si-SPAD detector was fully saturated, i.e. every single pulse of 2.4 μm radiation triggered the detector. The quantum efficiency of the detector was 27 % and the dead-time was 77 ns. This indicates that substantially weaker pulses could be detected with this method. The pulses were detected with a timing resolution of 140 ps, which corresponds to a spatial resolution of 20 mm for LIDAR. The detector response when the 1.064 nm laser was either on or off can be seen in Fig. 1 (b). The temporal resolution was mainly determined by the trigger jitter in the electronics for the Si-SPAD. Nonetheless, this is, to our knowledge, the best timing resolution for detection of pulses in the MIR region by up-converting the MIR photon inside a cavity.
关键词： mid-infrared,up-conversion,photon counting,single-photon detection,LIDAR
更新于2025-09-16 10:30:52
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[IEEE 2018 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements (CPEM 2018) - Paris, France (2018.7.8-2018.7.13)] 2018 Conference on Precision Electromagnetic Measurements (CPEM 2018) - Optical Transition Edge Sensors: Wavelength Dependence of System Detection Efficiency
摘要： Optical transition edge sensors (TESs) which can resolve an energy of a single photon have proven desirable in quantum information and biology. TESs can provide spectra ranging from near-infrared to visible regions, and have the potential to reveal new phenomena in biology. To obtain reliable spectra, wavelength dependence of the system detection ef?ciency should be calibrated. The dependence is due to a cavity structure of the detector, consisting of an anti-re?ection coating and a mirror. We will present a calibration using a supercontinuum laser and acousto-optic tunable ?lters (AOTF).
关键词： system detection ef?ciency,superconducting detector,supercontinuum laser,Single photon detection,transition edge sensor
更新于2025-09-10 09:29:36
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Global Algorithm Applied on Single Photon Detection
摘要： There are three major contributions. Firstly, applied study on the theory and experiment of single photon detection, including the project and experiment of quantum key distribution. Secondly, based on methods of the selection of detector, main photo electronic system configuration, design and creation, along with the relationship between these to system characteristics have been studied. Thirdly, based on the considerations on the research of image sensor systems on single photon detection, and the total system characteristics are evaluated and discussed in quantity. The results of simulation experiments and theory analyzing demonstrate that proposed method could advance the system validity effectively, and theory analysis and experiment shows the method is reasonable and efficient.
关键词： Single photon detection,Imaging sensors,System engineering
更新于2025-09-10 09:29:36
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Extreme Ultraviolet to Visible Dispersed Single Photon Detection for Highly Sensitive Sensing of Fundamental Processes in Diverse Samples
摘要： The detection of a single photon is the most sensitive method for sensing of photon emission. A common technique for single photon detection uses microchannel plate arrays combined with photocathodes and position sensitive anodes. Here, we report on the combination of such detectors with grating diffraction spectrometers, constituting a low-noise wavelength resolving photon spectroscopy apparatus with versatile applicability. We recapitulate the operation principle of such detectors and present the details of the experimental set-up, which we use to investigate fundamental mechanisms in atomic and molecular systems after excitation with tuneable synchrotron radiation. Extensions for time and polarization resolved measurements are described and examples of recent applications in current research are given.
关键词： fluorescence,synchrotron radiation,single photon detection,photon spectroscopy,clusters,atomic and molecular physics
更新于2025-09-09 09:28:46
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Optical Transition-Edge Sensors: Dependence of System Detection Efficiency on Wavelength
摘要： Optical transition-edge sensors (TESs) that can resolve the energy of a single photon have been proven useful in quantum information and biology. TESs can provide spectra ranging from near-infrared to visible regions and have the potential to reveal new phenomena in biology. In this paper, we have investigated the responses of TESs to photons at near-infrared and visible wavelengths, from 450 to 1000 nm in 10-nm increments using a supercontinuum laser and a tunable bandpass filter, which converted the multichromatic light source into monochromatic light. The system detection efficiency of an optical TES optimized for photon detection at 950 nm was nearly 100% at some wavelengths and was more than 10% for the overall bandwidth. We found that the detector responses strongly depended on the wavelengths. A spectrum of the filtered light at shorter wavelengths was more likely to show a second peak with energy lower than that of the primary peak.
关键词： system detection efficiency,Single-photon detection,superconducting detector,transition-edge sensor (TES),supercontinuum (SC) laser
更新于2025-09-09 09:28:46
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InGaAs-GaAs Nanowire Avalanche Photodiodes Toward Single Photon Detection in Free-Running Mode
摘要： Single photon detection at near-infrared (NIR) wavelengths is critical for light detection and ranging (LiDAR) systems used in imaging technologies such as autonomous vehicle trackers and atmospheric remote sensing. Portable, high-performance LiDAR relies on silicon-based single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs) due to their extremely low dark count rate (DCR) and afterpulsing probability, but their operation wavelengths are typically limited up to 905 nm. Although InGaAs-InP SPADs offer an alternative platform to extend the operation wavelengths to eye-safe ranges, their high DCR and afterpulsing severely limit their commercial applications. Here we propose a new selective absorption and multiplication avalanche photodiode (SAM-APD) platform composed of vertical InGaAs-GaAs nanowire arrays for single photon detection. Among a total of 4400 nanowires constituting one photodiode, each avalanche event is confined in a single nanowire, which means that the avalanche volume and the number of filled traps can be drastically reduced in our approach. This leads to an extremely small afterpulsing probability compared with conventional InGaAs-based SPADs and enables operation in free-running mode. We show DCR below 10 Hz, due to reduced fill factor, with photon count rates of 7.8 MHz and timing jitter less than 113 ps, which suggest that nanowire-based NIR focal plane arrays for single photon detection can be designed without active quenching circuitry that severely restricts pixel density and portability in NIR commercial SPADs. Therefore, the proposed work based on vertical nanowires provides a new degree of freedom in designing avalanche photodetectors and could be a stepping stone for high-performance InGaAs SPADs.
关键词： free-running mode,InGaAs-GaAs,single photon detection,avalanche photodiodes,near-infrared,nanowires
更新于2025-09-09 09:28:46